BPA FREE…….????

In 2008, the possible health risks of Bisphenol A (BPA) — a common chemical in plastic — made headlines. Parents were alarmed, pediatricians flooded with questions, and stores quickly sold-out of BPA-free bottles and sippy cups.

Where do things stand now? Have plastic manufacturers changed their practices? How careful does a parent need to be when it comes to plastics and BPA? Here’s the latest information we have about possible BPA risks.

BPA Basics

BPA is a chemical that has been used to harden plastics for more than 40 years. It’s everywhere. It’s in medical devices, compact discs, dental sealants, water bottles, the lining of canned foods and drinks, and many other pro

More than 90% of us have BPA in our bodies right now. We get most of it by eating foods that have been in containers made with BPA. It’s also possible to pick up BPA through air, dust, and water.

BPA was common in baby bottles, sippy cups, baby formula cans, and other products for babies and young children. Controversy changed that. Now, the six major companies that make baby bottles and cups for infants have stopped using BPA in the products they sell in the U.S. Many manufacturers of infant formula have stopped using BPA in their cans, as well.

According to the U.S. Department of Health, toys generally don’t contain BPA. While the hard outer shields of some pacifiers do have BPA, the nipple that the baby sucks on does not.

BPA Risks

What does BPA do to us? We still don’t really know, since we don’t have definitive studies of its effects in people yet. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration used to say that BPA was safe. But in 2010 the agency altered its position. The FDA maintains that studies using standardized toxicity tests have shown BPA to be safe at the current low levels of human exposure. But based on other evidence — largely from animal studies — the FDA expressed “some concern” about the potential effects of BPA on the brain, behavior, and prostate glands in fetuses, infants, and young children.

Bisphenol A is used primarily to make plastics, and products using bisphenol A-based plastics have been in commercial use since 1957.At least 3.6 million tonnes (8 billion pounds) of BPA are used by manufacturers yearly. It is a key monomer in production of epoxyresins and in the most common form of polycarbonate plastic. Bisphenol A and phosgene react to give polycarbonate under biphasic conditions; the hydrochloric acid is scavenged with aqueous base:

Polycarbonatsynthese.svg

Diphenyl carbonate may be used in place of phosgene. Phenol is eliminated instead of hydrochloric acid. This transesterification process avoids the toxicity and handling of phosgene

 

ATOM,MOLECULES

Chirality

Stereoisomers are isomers that differ in spatial arrangement of atoms, rather than order of atomic connectivity. One of their most interesting type of isomer is the mirror-image stereoisomers, a non-superimposable set of two molecules that are mirror image of one another. The existence of these molecules are determined by concept known as chirality.

 

Introduction

Organic compounds, molecules created around a chain of carbon atom (more commonly known as carbon backbone), play an essential role in the chemistry of life. These molecules derive their importance from the energy they carry, mainly in a form of potential energy between atomic molecules. Since such potential force can be widely affected due to changes in atomic placement, it is important to understand the concept of an isomer, a molecule sharing same atomic make up as another but differing in structural arrangements. This article will be devoted to a specific isomers called stereoisomers and its property of chirality (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Two enantiomers of a tetrahedral complex.

The concepts of steroisomerism and chirality command great deal of importance in modern organic chemistry, as these ideas helps to understand the physical and theoretical reasons behind the formation and structures of numerous organic molecules, the main reason behind the energy embedded in these essential chemicals. In contrast to more well-known constitutional isomerism, which develops isotopic compounds simply by different atomic connectivity, stereoisomerism generally maintains equal atomic connections and orders of building blocks as well as having same numbers of atoms and types of elements.

What, then, makes stereoisomers so unique? To answer this question, the learner must be able to think and imagine in not just two-dimensional images, but also three-dimensional space. This is due to the fact that stereoisomers are isomers because their atoms are different from others in terms of spatial arrangement.

 

Spatial Arrangement

First and foremost, one must understand the concept of spatial arrangement in order to understand stereoisomerism and chirality. Spatial arrangement of atoms concern how different atomic particles and molecules are situated about in the space around the organic compound, namely its carbon chain. In this sense, spatial arrangement of an organic molecule are different another if an atom is shifted in any three-dimensional direction by even one degree. This opens up a very broad possibility of different molecules, each with their unique placement of atoms in three-dimensional space .

 

Stereoisomers

Stereoisomers are, as mentioned above, contain different types of isomers within itself, each with distinct characteristics that further separate each other as different chemical entities having different properties. Type called entaniomer are the previously-mentioned mirror-image stereoisomers, and will be explained in detail in this article. Another type, diastereomer, has different properties and will be introduced afterwards.

 

Enantiomers

This type of stereoisomer is the essential mirror-image, non-superimposable type of stereoisomer introduced in the beginning of the article. Figure 3 provides a perfect example; note that the gray plane in the middle demotes the mirror plane.

 

Figure 2: Comparison of Chiral and Achiral Molecules. (a) Bromochlorofluoromethane is a chiral molecule whose stereocenter is designated with an asterisk. Rotation of its mirror image does not generate the original structure. To superimpose the mirror images, bonds must be broken and reformed. (b) In contrast, dichlorofluoromethane and its mirror image can be rotated so they are superimposable.

Note that even if one were to flip over the left molecule over to the right, the atomic spatial arrangement will not be equal. This is equivalent to the left hand – right hand relationship, and is aptly referred to as ‘handedness’ in molecules. This can be somewhat counter-intuitive, so this article recommends the reader try the ‘hand’ example. Place both palm facing up, and hands next to each other. Now flip either side over to the other. One hand should be showing the back of the hand, while the other one is showing the palm. They are not same and non-superimposable.

This is where the concept of chirality comes in as one of the most essential and defining idea of stereoisomerism.

 

Chirality

Chirality essentially means ‘mirror-image, non-superimposable molecules’, and to say that a molecule is chiral is to say that its mirror image (it must have one) is not the same as it self. Whether a molecule is chiral or achiral depends upon a certain set of overlapping conditions. Figure 4 shows an example of two molecules, chiral and achiral, respectively. Notice the distinct characteristic of the achiral molecule: it possesses two atoms of same element. In theory and reality, if one were to create a plane that runs through the other two atoms, they will be able to create what is known as bisecting plane: The images on either side of the plan is the same as the other (Figure 4).

 

Figure 4.jpg

Figure 4.

 

In this case, the molecule is considered ‘achiral’. In other words, to distinguish chiral molecule from an achiral molecule, one must search for the existence of the bisecting plane in a molecule. All chiral molecules are deprive of bisecting plane, whether simple or complex.

As a universal rule, no molecule with different surrounding atoms are achiral. Chirality is a simple but essential idea to support the concept of stereoisomerism, being used to explain one type of its kind. The chemical properties of the chiral molecule differs from its mirror image, and in this lies the significance of chilarity in relation to modern organic chemistry.

 

Compounds with Multiple Chiral Centers

We turn our attention next to molecules which have more than one stereocenter. We will start with a common four-carbon sugar called D-erythrose. 

image126.png

A note on sugar nomenclature: biochemists use a special system to refer to the stereochemistry of sugar molecules, employing names of historical origin in addition to the designators ‘D‘ and ‘L‘.  You will learn about this system if you take a biochemistry class.  We will use the D/L designations here to refer to different sugars, but we won’t worry about learning the system.

As you can see, D-erythrose is a chiral molecule: C2 and C3 are stereocenters, both of which have the R configuration. In addition, you should make a model to convince yourself that it is impossible to find a plane of symmetry through the molecule, regardless of the conformation. Does D-erythrose have an enantiomer?  Of course it does – if it is a chiral molecule, it must.  The enantiomer of erythrose is its mirror image, and is named L-erythrose (once again, you should use models to convince yourself that these mirror images of erythrose are not superimposable).

image128.png

Notice that both chiral centers in L-erythrose both have the S configuration.  In a pair of enantiomers, all of the chiral centers are of the opposite configuration.

What happens if we draw a stereoisomer of erythrose in which the configuration is S at C2 and R at C3?  This stereoisomer, which is a sugar called D-threose, is not a mirror image of erythrose. D-threose is a diastereomer of both D-erythrose and L-erythrose.

image129.png

The definition of diastereomers is simple: if two molecules are stereoisomers (same molecular formula, same connectivity, different arrangement of atoms in space) but are notenantiomers, then they are diastereomers by default. In practical terms, this means that at least one – but not all – of the chiral centers are opposite in a pair of diastereomers.  By definition, two molecules that are diastereomers are not mirror images of each other.

L-threose, the enantiomer of D-threose, has the R configuration at C2 and the S configuration at C3.  L-threose is a diastereomer of both erythrose enantiomers.

In general, a structure with n stereocenters will have 2n different stereoisomers. (We are not considering, for the time being, the stereochemistry of double bonds – that will come later).   For example, let’s consider the glucose molecule in its open-chain form (recall that many sugar molecules can exist in either an open-chain or a cyclic form). There are two enantiomers of glucose, called D-glucose and L-glucose.  The D-enantiomer is the common sugar that our bodies use for energy. It has n = 4 stereocenters, so therefore there are 2n = 24 = 16 possible stereoisomers (including D-glucose itself). 

image130.png

In L-glucose, all of the stereocenters are inverted relative to D-glucose. That  leaves 14 diastereomers of D-glucose: these are molecules in which at least one, but not all, of the stereocenters are inverted relative to D-glucose.  One of these 14 diastereomers, a sugar called D-galactose, is shown above: in D-galactose, one of four stereocenters is inverted relative to D-glucose.  Diastereomers which differ in only one stereocenter (out of two or more)  are called epimers. D-glucose and D-galactose can therefore be refered to as epimers as well as diastereomers.

BASICS OF CHEMISTRY

 

How to name organic compounds using the IUPAC rules

In order to name organic compounds you must first memorize a few basic names. These names are listed within the discussion of naming alkanes. In general, the base part of the name reflects the number of carbons in what you have assigned to be the parent chain. The suffix of the name reflects the type(s) of functional group(s) present on (or within) the parent chain. Other groups which are attached to the parent chain are called substituents.

  • Alkanes – saturated hydrocarbons
    The names of the straight chain saturated hydrocarbons for up to a 12 carbon chain are shown below. The names of the substituents formed by the removal of one hydrogen from the end of the chain is obtained by changing the suffix –ane to –yl.

 

Number of Carbons Name
1 methane
2 ethane
3 propane
4 butane
5 pentane
6 hexane
7 heptane
8 octane
9 nonane
10 decane
11 undecane
12 dodecane

There are a few common branched substituents which you should memorize. These are shown below.

Here is a simple list of rules to follow. Some examples are given at the end of the list.

  1. Identify the longest carbon chain. This chain is called the parent chain.
  2. Identify all of the substituents (groups appending from the parent chain).
  3. Number the carbons of the parent chain from the end that gives the substituents the lowest numbers. When compairing a series of numbers, the series that is the “lowest” is the one which contains the lowest number at the occasion of the first difference. If two or more side chains are in equivalent positions, assign the lowest number to the one which will come first in the name.
  4. If the same substituent occurs more than once, the location of each point on which the substituent occurs is given. In addition, the number of times the substituent group occurs is indicated by a prefix (di, tri, tetra, etc.).
  5. If there are two or more different substituents they are listed in alphabetical order using the base name (ignore the prefixes). The only prefix which is used when putting the substituents in alphabetical order is iso as in isopropyl or isobutyl. The prefixes sec- and tert- are not used in determining alphabetical order except when compared with each other.
  6. If chains of equal length are competing for selection as the parent chain, then the choice goes in series to:
    a) the chain which has the greatest number of side chains.
    b) the chain whose substituents have the lowest- numbers.
    c) the chain having the greatest number of carbon atoms in the smaller side chain.
    d)the chain having the least branched side chains.
  7. A cyclic (ring) hydrocarbon is designated by the prefix cyclo-which appears directly in front of the base name.

In summary, the name of the compound is written out with the substituents in alphabetical order followed by the base name (derived from the number of carbons in the parent chain). Commas are used between numbers and dashes are used between letters and numbers. There are no spaces in the name.

Here are some examples:

 

  • Alkyl halides
    The halogen is treated as a substituent on an alkane chain. The halo- substituent is considered of equal rank with an alkyl substituent in the numbering of the parent chain. The halogens are represented as follows:

 

 

F fluoro-
Cl chloro-
Br bromo-
I iodo-

Here are some examples:

 

  • Alkenes and Alkynes – unsaturated hydrocarbons
    Double bonds in hydrocarbons are indicated by replacing the suffix -anewith -ene. If there is more than one double bond, the suffix is expanded to include a prefix that indicates the number of double bonds present (-adiene, -atriene, etc.). Triple bonds are named in a similar way using the suffix -yne. The position of the multiple bond(s) within the parent chain is(are) indicated by placing the number(s) of the first carbon of the multiple bond(s) directly in front of the base name.

 

Here is an important list of rules to follow:

  1. The parent chain is numbered so that the multiple bonds have the lowest numbers (double and triple bonds have priority over alkyl and halo substituents).
  2. When both double and triple bonds are present, numbers as low as possible are given to double and triple bonds even though this may at times give “-yne” a lower number than “-ene”. When there is a choice in numbering, the double bonds are given the lowest numbers.
  3. When both double and triple bonds are present, the -en suffix follows the parent chain directly and the -yne suffix follows the -en suffix (notice that the e is left off, -en instead of -ene). The location of the double bond(s) is(are) indicated before the parent name as before, and the location of the triple bond(s) is(are) indicated between the -en and -yne suffixes. See below for examples.
  4. For a branched unsaturated acyclic hydrocarbon, the parent chain is the longest carbon chain that contains the maximum number of double and triple bonds. If there are two or more chains competing for selection as the parent chain (chain with the most multiple bonds), the choice goes to (1) the chain with the greatest number of carbon atoms, (2) the # of carbon atoms being equal, the chain containing the maximum number of double bonds.
  5. If there is a choice in numbering not previously covered, the parent chain is numbered to give the substituents the lowest number at the first point of difference.

Here are some examples:

 

  • Alcohols
    Alcohols are named by replacing the suffix -ane with -anol. If there is more than one hydroxyl group (-OH), the suffix is expanded to include a prefix that indicates the number of hydroxyl groups present (-anediol, -anetriol, etc.). The position of the hydroxyl group(s) on the parent chain is(are) indicated by placing the number(s) corresponding to the location(s) on the parent chain directly in front of the base name (same as alkenes).

 

Here is an important list of rules to follow:

  1. The hydroxyl group takes precedence over alkyl groups and halogen substituents, as well as double bonds, in the numbering of the parent chain.
  2. When both double bonds and hydroxyl groups are present, the -en suffix follows the parent chain directly and the -ol suffix follows the -en suffix (notice that the e is left off, -en instead of -ene). The location of the double bond(s) is(are) indicated before the parent name as before, and the location of the hydroxyl group(s) is(are) indicated between the -en and -ol suffixes. See below for examples. Again, the hydroxyl gets priority in the numbering of the parent chain.
  3. If there is a choice in numbering not previously covered, the parent chain is numbered to give the substituents the lowest number at the first point of difference.

Here are some examples:

 

  • Ethers
    You are only expected to know how to name ethers by their commmon names. The two alkyl groups attached to the oxygen are put in alphabetical order with spaces between the names and they are followed by the word ether. The prefix di- is used if both alkyl groups are the same.

 

Here are some examples:

 

  • Aldehydes
    Aldehydes are named by replacing the suffix -ane with -anal. If there is more than one -CHO group, the suffix is expanded to include a prefix that indicates the number of -CHO groups present (-anedial – there should not be more than 2 of these groups on the parent chain as they must occur at the ends). It is not necessary to indicate the position of the -CHO group because this group will be at the end of the parent chain and its carbon is automatically assigned as C-1.

 

Here is an important list of rules to follow:

  1. The carbonyl group takes precedence over alkyl groups and halogen substituents, as well as double bonds, in the numbering of the parent chain.
  2. When both double bonds and carbonyl groups are present, the -en suffix follows the parent chain directly and the -al suffix follows the -en suffix (notice that the e is left off, -en instead of -ene). The location of the double bond(s) is(are) indicated before the parent name as before, and the -al suffix follows the -en suffix directly. Remember it is not necessary to specify the location of the carbonyl group because it will automatically be carbon #1. See below for examples. Again, the carbonyl gets priority in the numbering of the parent chain.
  3. There are a couple of common names which are acceptable as IUPAC names. They are shown in the examples at the end of this list but at this point these names will not be accepted by the computer. Eventually they will be accepted.
  4. If there is a choice in numbering not previously covered, the parent chain is numbered to give the substituents the lowest number at the first point of difference.

Here are some examples:

 

  • Ketones
    Ketones are named by replacing the suffix -ane with -anone. If there is more than one carbonyl group (C=O), the suffix is expanded to include a prefix that indicates the number of carbonyl groups present (-anedione,-anetrione, etc.). The position of the carbonyl group(s) on the parent chain is(are) indicated by placing the number(s) corresponding to the location(s) on the parent chain directly in front of the base name (same as alkenes).

 

Here is an important list of rules to follow:

  1. The carbonyl group takes precedence over alkyl groups and halogen substituents, as well as double bonds, in the numbering of the parent chain.
  2. When both double bonds and carbonyl groups are present, the -en suffix follows the parent chain directly and the -one suffix follows the -en suffix (notice that the e is left off, -en instead of -ene). The location of the double bond(s) is(are) indicated before the parent name as before, and the location of the carbonyl group(s) is(are) indicated between the -en and -one suffixes. See below for examples. Again, the carbonyl gets priority in the numbering of the parent chain.
  3. If there is a choice in numbering not previously covered, the parent chain is numbered to give the substituents the lowest number at the first point of difference.

Here are some examples:

 

  • Carboxylic Acids
    Carboxylic acids are named by counting the number of carbons in the longest continuous chain including the carboxyl group and by replacing the suffix -ane of the corresponding alkane with -anoic acid. If there are two -COOH groups, the suffix is expanded to include a prefix that indicates the number of -COOH groups present (-anedioic acid – there should not be more than 2 of these groups on the parent chain as they must occur at the ends). It is not necessary to indicate the position of the -COOH group because this group will be at the end of the parent chain and its carbon is automatically assigned as C-1.

 

Here is an important list of rules to follow:

  1. The carboxyl group takes precedence over alkyl groups and halogen substituents, as well as double bonds, in the numbering of the parent chain.
  2. If the carboxyl group is attached to a ring the parent ring is named and the suffix -carboxylic acid is added.
  3. When both double bonds and carboxyl groups are present, the -en suffix follows the parent chain directly and the -oic acid suffix follows the -en suffix (notice that the e is left off, -en instead of -ene). The location of the double bond(s) is(are) indicated before the parent name as before, and the -oic acid suffix follows the -en suffix directly. Remember it is not necessary to specify the location of the carboxyl group because it will automatically be carbon #1. See below for examples. Again, the carboxyl gets priority in the numbering of the parent chain.
  4. There are several common names which are acceptable as IUPAC names. They are shown in the examples at the end of this list butat this point these names will not be accepted by the computer. Eventually they will be accepted.
  5. If there is a choice in numbering not previously covered, the parent chain is numbered to give the substituents the lowest number at the first point of difference.

Here are some examples:

 

  • Esters
    Systematic names of esters are based on the name of the corresponding carboxylic acid. Remember esters look like this:

 


The alkyl group is named like a substituent using the -yl ending. This is followed by a space. The acyl portion of the name (what is left over) is named by replacing the -ic acid suffix of the corresponding carboxylic acid with -ate.Here are some examples:

  • Amines
    You are only expected to know how to name amines by their common names . They are named like ethers, the alkyl (R) groups attached to the nitrogen are put in alphabetical order with no spaces between the names and these are followed by the word amine. The prefixes di- and tri- are used if two or three of the alkyl groups are the same.
    NOTE: Some books put spaces between the parts of the name, but we will not. Follow the examples.

 

Here are some examples:

 

  • Summary of functional groups

     

    Functional group Prefix Suffix
    carboxylic acids none -oic acid
    aldehydes none -al
    ketones none -one
    alchols hydroxy- -ol
    amines amino- -amine
    ethers alkoxy- -ether
    fluorine fluoro- none
    chlorine chloro- none
    bromine bromo- none
    iodine iodo- none

     

 

Adrenals Fatigue

The problem today is that chronic stress is forcing our adrenals to remain permanently in the “on” position. Many of us are experiencing prolonged, everyday stress which our bodies were not designed to deal with, and which would never have plagued our hunter-gatherer ancestors. These stressors are everywhere and include work troubles, family pressures, financial concerns, commuting frustration, relationship issues and environmental toxins from things like exhaust smoke, VOCs from our homes and chemicals in our food and personal products. These everyday things which we take for granted are telling our brain that we are under constant pressure, which then forces our adrenals to keep producing more and more of these stress hormones to “deal” with the problem.

The result is adrenal fatigue, which can lead to major health issues like excessive weight gain, chronic tiredness and compromised immunity. If you’re on of those people I described above, the ones who are constantly plagued by stress, chances are you have adrenal fatigue, and chances are it’s really impinging upon your health and happiness. Here are 11 signs to look out for.

1. Trouble sleeping

Not only are you having trouble falling asleep even though you’re tired, you’re also having troublestaying asleep. People with adrenal fatigue have trouble attaining sufficiently restful sleep and so their body becomes even more ravaged over time.

2. Rapid mood swings

Adrenal fatigue can run rampant with your emotions and is most often associated with people who get irritated easily or are quick to anger. Sometimes these people might not even know why they got angry in the first place, and have difficulty curbing their negative feelings once they’ve been unleashed.

3. Feelings of anxiousness

Interspersed with those rapid swings could be periods where you’re beset with unfathomable depression or anxiety. That’s the cortisol working its wily ways on your brain.

4. Food cravings

A classic symptom of adrenal overload is the production of excessive levels of blood sugar and insulin, leading to insulin resistance (the precursor to diabetes). This resistance causes us to be at the mercy of frequent and strong sugar, salt and fat cravings. Next time you find yourself reaching for those sugary snacks, think why you crave them in the first place!

5. Weight gain

Exercising regularly, eating well but still gaining weight? A little more cushion around the midriff or rump could signify that you have adrenal fatigue, on account of that insulin resistance I talked about previously. Plus all that exercising is only going to stress your adrenals out more, exacerbating the situation.

6. A bad case of 3.30itis

Do you find yourself getting really tired between 3 and 4 in the afternoon or gravitating towards the coffee machine? This is one sign that you could be suffering from adrenal fatigue.

7. Lowered immunity

If you find yourself succumbing to colds and the flu more often than you used to, you’re having a lot more trouble recovering from being sick, or your cuts and scratches become infected easily, you could be suffering from adrenal fatigue.

8. Reduced digestive capacity

Another symptom of adrenal overload or fatigue can manifest itself in compromised digestion. This can involve increased intolerance to foods, gas, bloating or cramps after eating, and regular constipation or difficulty moving your bowels.

9. Hormonal imbalance

You’re thinking, “well duh!” but the chronic and excessive production of those stress hormones can imbalance the production of other vital hormones in your body. This can result in issues like infertility, lack of libido, intense acne breakouts and thyroid problems.

10. Cognitive issues

Suffering from gaps in your memory, or struggling to cram in extra information at work or study? It could be on account of exhausted adrenals.

11. Dark circles under your eyes

While it’s true that adrenal fatigue can affect your sleep, dark circles under your eyes are in large part due to a disruption in blood circulation — something that can be caused by the dehydration and emotional stress of adrenal fatigue.

How to fight adrenal fatigue

Unfortunately, there’s no “magical cure” or wondrous supplement which can treat your adrenal fatigue and get your body back into the groove of things again. That’s the bad news. The good news is that allowing your adrenals to recuperate is simpler than you might have thought. It involves simply taking time out, time away from your fast-paced life and a break from the constant stress of work, money and life in general.

Consider taking up meditation, cultivating mindfulness and embracing constant movement throughout your day. All of these practices can provide some much-needed relaxation time both for your body and your brain, briefly halting those stress signals being constantly sent from your brain to your adrenals and allowing them to recharge.

Other big things you can do to help your adrenals is getting plenty of sleep, eating filling, wholesome meals while avoiding sugary or sodium-rich snacks and cutting back on your caffeine intake. Keep in mind that exercise is good, but too much can harm your adrenals even more, as intense and prolonged exercise promotes the production of cortisol which, as we know, puts pressure on the adrenals. Look after your body and your adrenals will thank you!

A colloid is typically a two phase system consisting of a continuous phase (the dispersion medium) and dispersed phase (the particles or emulsion droplets). The particle size of the dispersed phase typically ranges from 1 nm to 1000 nm. Examples of colloidal dispersion include solid/liquid (suspensions), liquid/liquid (emulsions), and gas/liquid (foams). A more complete range of colloidal dispersion is shown in the table below.

Colloidal Dispersions

Particle Interactions

As particle size decreases, surface area increases as a function of total volume. In the colloidal size range there is much interest in particle-particle interactions. Most colloidal commercial products are designed to remain in a stable condition for a defined shelf life. Milk is an example where homogenization is used to reduce droplet size to delay the onset of phase separation (i.e., creaming with the fat rising to the surface). Commercial suspensions may be formulated to keep particles in suspension without sedimenting to the bottom. Examples of phase separation mechanisms are shown below.

Phase Separation Mechanisms
Phase Separation Mechanisms

Foods That Suppress Your Cravings

Do you constantly think about food and aren’t able to resist your cravings? Well if you are trying to shed weight or just eat healthier, it’s important to keep your cravings at bay to hit the goal. Here we have listed few foods that will help you stay full for long and loose weight.

1. Almonds

Almonds

 

Almonds are a good source of healthy fats and make for a great snack between the meals.

2. Oatmeal

Oatmeal

 

It’s not funny that the whole world is talking about oats these days. There are oat cookies, cakes, breads and what not in the market. The thick and gooey texture oats have comes from a type of soluble fibre called beta-glucans. This soluble fiber is low in cholesterol and helps to keep stomach full for a longer time.

3. Cottage cheese

Cottage cheese

 

Cheese is a good source of protein which helps suppress the appetite. It is a healthy snack for those trying to loose weight.

4. Soup

Soup

 

Most of us have soup as an appetiser before meal but according to a research soup served with chunks of vegetable helps to feel full quickly and for a longer time. The act of chewing tricks the body to feel fuller.

5. Water

Water

 

According to a study if you drink two glasses of water before a meal, you tend to feel full faster and burn more calories than people who drink no water at all.

6. Flax seeds

Flax seeds

 

Flax seeds are rich in fiber and are also rich in omega-3 fats, these seeds are also rich in protein and can help you to suppress your appetite.

7. Avocados

Avacados

 

Avocados have creamy texture and takes time to digest, therefore helps to curb the craving for a longer time.

8. Yogurt

Yogurt

 

Creamy and thick texture of yogurt also helps to trick our brain and body into feeling fuller. You can eat it with fruits or nuts to increase the satiety factor.

Bacteria that decompose PET plastic

We all know that plastic waste is a huge problem — about 32 million tons of the stuff enter our landfills each year. Plastic is also polluting our oceans. Most of this plastic is not biodegradable.

In a breakthrough that may help us make huge strides towards remedying the world’s plastic problem, a team of researchers at Kyoto University has isolated a bacteria that feeds on polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

While fungi that eat plastic have been previously discovered, these fungi can be difficult to grow. The bacteria, on the other hand, named Ideonella sakaensis, is easy to grow. This bacteria can live on the PET, and “eat” it in its entirety. Furthermore, the Kyoto University research team identified and isolated the enzyme in Ideonella sakaensis that breaks down the PET, and manufactured it.

Using this bacteria, and its active enzyme, PET plastic could be broken down to its chemical constituents, and used to make new plastic products, which many companies prefer over recycled plastics (backwards, yes, but such is the industry). If this method takes off, it would eliminate the need for many of the raw materials used to make plastic.

Uruguay’s big shift towards renewable energy

During the recent climate summit in Paris, the nation of Uruguay announced that a whopping 94.5 percent of its electricity now comes from renewable sources. The fact that Uruguay has accomplished this, and the ways in which it did so, are an encouraging sign that any nation can make this transition — without increasing consumer costs.

 

 

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Chicory

Chicory is also a rich source of vitamins and minerals, including zinc, magnesium, manganese, calcium, iron folic acid and potassium, as well as vitamins A, B6, C, E and K. Studies, including research from the University of Pécs, Hungary Medical School, found that chicory’s high phenolic content, a type of antioxidant, offers protective effects on the cardiovascular system.

One of chicory’s main attributes as a food source is a high content of inulin, which is a type of soluble fiber. It’s not affected by the digestive enzymes of the stomach, therefore passing to the colon where it’s metabolized by bacteria, stimulating their growth.

The long-time use of chicory root as a laxative and diuretic is believed to be due to its high inulin content – the herb is even approved for use as a treatment for a variety of digestive disorders in Germany, including heartburn, bloating and loss of appetite.

Inulin is also considered to be a powerful probiotic. It is used to battle a wide range of intestinal and digestive concerns, including indigestion, constipation, heartburn and acid reflux as it is able to reduce acidity in the body.